Theme 4
Science and Engineering Workforce
Policy questions and key messages
- Is the UK producing enough scientists and engineers?
- Are there skills mismatches in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) disciplines in the UK?
- How does this compare with other countries?
The UK has a relatively high proportion of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) graduates.
- During the academic year 2021/22, 42% of all graduates in the UK completed STEM disciplines.
- The UK produces more STEM graduates per capita in the 20–34-year-old population than comparator countries. In 2020 the UK awarded 1,393 first university degrees per 100,000 individuals in STEM fields, compared to 1,317 in the US, and 690 and 650 in India and China, respectively.
However, the UK is producing fewer graduates in engineering, manufacturing and construction.
- In 2022 more than half (52%) of the UK’s STEM graduates pursued health-related disciplines.
- In 2021 the percentage of graduates in engineering, manufacturing and construction in the UK was only 9.1%, which is significantly lower than Italy, Switzerland, Japan, Korea and Germany. In these countries, the percentage of graduates in these disciplines ranged from 14.4% to 22.1%.
Despite the high proportion of STEM graduates, there are significant STEM-related skills gaps in the UK labour market.
- In the UK 934,000 vacancies were recorded towards the end of 2023, 46% of which were in fields related to STEM disciplines. At the beginning of 2024, 12% of UK firms in manufacturing and 6.9% in information and communication said they were experiencing a shortage of workers.
- For UK employers, it is difficult to find individuals with skills related to medical knowledge, scientific knowledge, production and technology knowledge and digital skills compared to the OECD average and the EU.
STEM degree production intensity
- The UK performs relatively well in terms of tertiary education attainment levels. In 2022 the share of the population with tertiary education in the UK was 57.7%, compared to 47.4% of the OECD average.[1]
- Science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) disciplines are particularly important for innovation activities.[2]
- In a study conducted for the UK government, it is estimated that the UK will need to fill around 382,000 research and development (R&D) jobs by 2027. Engineering UK, an advocacy group, estimates that 173,000 new engineering and technology jobs will be created by 2030.[3]
- In 2020 the UK awarded 183,000 first university degrees in STEM disciplines, compared to 2.5 million in India, 2 million in China and 900,000 in the US.[4]
- When normalising for the population in the 20–34-year-old population, however, the UK produces a higher proportion of STEM graduates. In 2020 the UK awarded 1,393 first university degrees per 100,000 people in STEM disciplines, compared to 1,317 in the US and 690 and 650 in India and China, respectively.
Note: [1] Tertiary education attainment is measured as the percentage of the population aged 25–34, in the same age group. OECD (2024). Population with tertiary education (indicator).
[2] There is no accepted definition of STEM disciplines, particularly regarding which subject disciplines to include in the classification. Therefore, differences among data sources may depend on the chosen classification.
[3] DSIT/BEIS (2021). The R&D Pipeline. BEIS Research Paper Number: 2021/22. Engineering UK (2023). Engineering skills needs – now and into the future.
[4] Source: National Science Foundation (2023). Higher Education in Science and Engineering – Figure HED-29.
STEM graduates in the UK
- In the academic year 2021/22, graduates from STEM disciplines accounted for 42% of all graduates in the UK, a value above that for 2020/21 (40%) and 2019/20 (41%).
- In 2022 health and related disciplines represented 52% of UK STEM graduates.
- Women are under-represented among certain STEM disciplines in the UK. For example, in 2021 women represented 53% of total STEM graduates, compared to 61% of the share of women who graduated in non-STEM disciplines.
- In disciplines such as engineering and technology, and computing, women represent only 22% and 24% of graduates, respectively.
- Analysis presented in previous editions of this report has found that the UK has a relatively low share of graduates in engineering, manufacturing and construction compared to other countries.[1]
- For example, in 2021 the number of graduates in engineering, manufacturing and construction as a share of all graduates in the UK was 9.1%, compared to Italy, Switzerland, Japan and Germany, whose share of graduates in these disciplines was between 14.4% and 22.1%.[1]
[1] Source: OECD (2023). Graduates by field – database.
Note: The classification used by the OECD differs from that used in Chart 4.2.
Where do UK STEM graduates work?
- Upon obtaining a degree, graduates with STEM skills are employed across a variety of economic sectors.
For the academic year 2020/21:
- Total STEM graduates: only 13% were employed in professional, scientific and technical activities, 9% in information and communication and 8% in manufacturing.
- Engineering and technology graduates: 28% were working in manufacturing, 23% in professional, scientific and technical activities and 9% in construction, while an additional 26% was spread across public administration, finance, education and public utilities.
- Physical sciences graduates: 21% were working in professional, scientific and technical activities, 15% in manufacturing and 12% in information and communication.
- Computing graduates: 44% were working in information and communication.
Skills needs: international comparison
- The OECD Skills for Jobs database shows how the UK compares to the OECD average and the EU in terms of “hard-to-find” skills.
- In the UK it is relatively hard to find skills related to medicine, scientific knowledge (biology, chemistry, physics), digital skills (computer programming, data processing, ICT safety and network, office tools and collaboration software) and production and technology knowledge (building and construction, design, engineering and technology, quality control analysis).
- Other analyses have highlighted labour shortages in the UK.[1] In October–December 2023, there were 934,000 vacancies in the country. Although this number is lower than its highest value, reached in March–May 2022 (1.3 million), it is still above the pre-pandemic value (801,000 in January–March 2020).[2]
- In October–December 2023, 46% of vacancies were in sectors where STEM graduates are most likely to be employed, including human health (18%), professional scientific and technical activities (10%), manufacturing (7%), education (7%) and information and communication (4%).[2]
- At the beginning of 2024, 12% of UK firms in manufacturing and 6.9% in information and communication, for example, said they were experiencing a shortage of workers.[3]
Note: [1] Francis-Devine B. and Buchanan I. (2023). Skills and labour shortages. House of Common Library.
[2] ONS (2024). VACS02: Vacancies by industry.
[3] ONS (2024). Business insights and impact on the UK economy –
Engineering profession salaries
- In 2023 the median gross salaries for the majority of core engineering occupations in the UK were higher than the average in the job market.[1]
- For example, the median annual gross salary for an electrical engineer was 80% higher than the median salary for all UK employees.
- Although engineering professions are better paid, women are under-represented in the profession. In 2023 women represented just 14% of the core engineering workforce, compared to 52% of the rest of the workforce.[2]
Note: [1] For the definition of core engineering professions, see Engineering UK (2018). The State of Engineering 2018.
[2] Core engineering workforce, as defined by Engineering UK (2018). Data for the UK workforce: ONS (2023) Annual population survey – Occupation (SOC2020) by sex, employment status and full/part-time.
